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Copies and Fakes
in the World of Antiques |
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Paintings and canvases. | Antique furniture and statues. |
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Objects in ivory, bronze and other metals. | |||
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Excavated pottery and bronze. | Antique and modern glassware. |
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African art. | |||
Carpets and tapestries. | Chinese and Buddhist art. | The Museum's scientific laboratory and scientific methods. |
Museo d'Arte e Scienza |
Milan - Italy |
The
only
museum worldwide dedicated to |
Over 2,000 items are on
display in the Museum's 18 rooms covering the main sectors of antiques.
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test
station room 8: |
test
station room 9: |
identification of glues and other synthetic materials with Wood’s light |
test station room 9: examination with a magnifying glass of signs of wear and decorations on china |
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optical examination of signs of wear to identify an authentic piece of silverware |
shadows reveal the industrial or handcrafted manufacture of glass |
the microscope distinguishes authentic patinas and encrustations from faked ones |
the dull sound of a porcelain item reveals hidden restoration work |
Via
Q. Sella, 4 -20121 Milano - Piazza Castello |
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The value of art expertise in the scientific age |
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The judgement of a renowned expert or a famous auction house has, at times, the magic power to push an article’s market value up by as much as a thousandfold. Thus a fine piece of furniture, a painting or an African mask may just as easily cost €1,000 or €1,000,000. This disconcerting difference in value estimates is becoming increasingly common in the international market. This would be conceivable if the appraisal were based on meaningful and verifiable data. Unfortunately this is not always the case. |
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€ 4,500 |
€ 5,000,000 |
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A valid method - IR Spectroscopy - the most widely used analytical method in the chemical industry and in scientific research laboratories, has existed for decades. Get further and detailed information from our web site: www.SpectroscopyforArt.com |
NOW OPERATIVE !
Branch of the Milan
scientific laboratory for determining the
authenticity
of valuable antique art objects
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The house, which has belonged to the Matthaes Family for 45 years, is situated on the shores of Lake Constance, near Lindau. |
Museo d’Arte e Scienza |
For further info: |
www.Museoartescienza.com
www.Spectroscopyforart.com |
The Founders and staff
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Gottfried
Matthaes |
Giovanna
Cozzi Matthaes |
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Dott. Chim.
Peter
Matthaes |
Patrizia
Matthaes Administration |
Silvia Mayer Languages and Communication |
Dott. Avv.
Martin Matthaes Lawyer - International Law |
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Chiara
Civardi First lab assistant |
Roberta Delmoro Art Historian (Independent) |
Marta
Cugnasca Data processing |
Sonia
Checchini Conservation |
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Determining the authenticity of antique paintings
Copies
At the outset of his career,
every good painter copied the great masters of the past. |
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The most convincing demonstration of how
problematic the attribution of a work can be is offered by Leonardo
Da Vinci with his masterpiece: “Virgin of the Rocks”, of which
there are four versions. This observation goes to show that many artists can reach the same technical quality as the great masters, a fact which increases the uncertainty of attribution.
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Such a high percentage of
inauthentic antiques on the market is easy to explain.
Genuine items from past centuries are not growing in number but becoming increasingly scarce.
The number of potential buyers, instead, is on the rise, thanks both
to the spread of wealth all over the world and to the increase in
per capita living space.
His teaching is unambiguous and clear:
“…the painter must observe nature and its phenomena using scientific
methods and considerations and copy nature, because the beauty of nature
is incomparable, infinite and exquisite.” Leonardo anticipated this trend in modern art centuries ago, approving it with the following reservation, however (Art. 63, 35 of the Treatise):
“…Do not disparage this conviction of
mine, when I tell you that it is worth the effort to pause sometimes to
look into these stains on walls, or in the ashes of a fire, or in clouds
or mud pools, or in other similar places where ... you will find
extraordinary inventions that inspire the painter to new inventions … …
But first you must gain a knowledge of how to make well all the parts of
those things you wish to represent ” (see Picasso's drawing)
Much of the blame for this unpleasant situation lies with the buyers themselves and it would be desirable for lovers of antiques to acquire greater competence or at least a good basic knowledge of this complex field. We must bear in mind, however, that this is a difficult enterprise for the following reasons: an antique object can have been made out of an infinite number of materials like stone, wood, ceramic, glass, metal and, in greater detail, glues, varnishes, nails and fabrics. Apart from the materials, a competent buyer must therefore also be familiar with processing techniques and the periods to which they refer.
Fundamentally one runs a far greater risk buying a work of art than
making any other kind of purchase. When we buy an electric household
appliance we can make a fair estimate of its sales price, based on the
cost of its raw materials, workmanship, packaging, transportation etc.
In the field of art and antiques, on the other hand, there is no
logical link between price and intrinsic worth. If we buy an old
engraving, for example, any attempt to calculate its value is vain.
An old print consists of a piece of paper and a printing operation using
a plate or block. In reality, lovers of antique art must not delude themselves into thinking that a knowledge of objective factors represents a guarantee that they can recognize a fine art object. In order to choose the ideal item, in addition to the rules for identifying and excluding objects of scant value, one must have passion, intuition, sensitivity and constant and intensive contacts with the world of antiques. |
Determining the authenticity
of furniture
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Completely authentic furniture older than 150-200 years does not exist. In most cases, a piece of furniture was an object used in daily life, like a table, a chair or a linen chest, and as such required repairs and restoration as the years went by and, sometimes, a number of modifications to adapt it to new needs. A prospective buyer should therefore observe a piece of furniture closely before making his purchase. The recognition of authenticity is based on: 1 -
style: the
subject is amply treated in a great many specialist books. |
The subject of the authenticity of furniture is dealt
with under the section on scientific methods in this site and, in
detail, providing numerous examples, explanations and photos, on our
sites
www.MobiliAntichiAutenticita.com
and
www.MuseoArteScienza.com
and in Volume 1 of our Museum’s handbook (pp. 139-208). |
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NEW ! |
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Ivory object, Africa |
Buddha temple, China |
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The term “ivory”
comprises today not only elephant tusks, but also the tusks and
horns of other animals and some types of bone. What distinguishes
all types of ivory is their hardness and
durability, characteristics due to their chemical composition. |
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Infrared
spectroscopic analysis identifies the molecules present in ivory
enabling the inorganic substances to be clearly distinguished
from the organic ones.
For organic substances it is possible to apply focused analytical
methods to selected and measurable molecules. |
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Fig. 1 |
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Fig. 2 |
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The application of spectroscopic analysis for the dating of organic
materials is patented |
Instructions on how to take ivory samples for dating
A) The
ivory object is sent to the laboratory of the
Museum in Milan. This procedure allows the sample to be taken with the
minimum and invisible damage. |
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The obtained fragment must be put into a piece of paper, which is to be folded carefully and mailed directly to the Museum laboratory. Price for one measurement: Euro 95, $125. |
Determining the authenticity of
objects in ivory, stone and bronze.
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The first art objects created by man
in every culture were carved or incised in the materials offered by nature:
stone or the horns, teeth or bones of animals. Metals had yet to be purified and
melted. Ascertaining the authenticity of these antique items is not difficult.
They were found buried in the earth and therefore show marked signs of
corrosion. Physical, optical and chemical tests cannot ensure the acquisition of
sufficient elements for an exact dating, because the objects are made from a
single and very often not datable type of material. Detailed information on the subject “Excavated Objects” can be found in Volume 3 of our Art Collector’s Illustrated Handbook. www.artandsciencehandbook.com For further information please visit our site www.MuseoArteScienza.com |
Ascertainment of the |
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Glass differs from all other materials in a number of very important respects: |
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- glass originates as a transparent and
lustrous substance Further information on our site www.MuseoArteScienza.com and in Volume 1 of our Museum’s handbook (pp. 209-232)
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Ascertainment of the
authenticity of excavated pottery.
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Along with clothes and weapons, ceramic
receptacles are the objects most essential to the survival of every population.
Pottery was used to contain liquids and food, as well as for cooking. It is not possible to say when copying began. It is logical to assume that an artist who saw a work of art he liked of any era would try to copy it.
Greek and, above all, Roman sculptors and
potters already had a great deal of Egyptian and Middle Eastern models at their
disposal. The forger or the copyist is interested in selling, after all, and his work must be as attractive as possible.
Most of the tests that can be carried out to
distinguish archaeological pieces from recent copies are surprisingly simple and
accessible to the layman. |
Ascertainment of authenticity in african art.
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Africa is a gigantic continent extending on either side of the equator, which has given birth to a great many different cultures over the millennia. It was probably the cradle of mankind. Most of the art objects in wood belonging to museums and collectors were however, with rare exceptions, made after the advent of the industrial age; that means after 1850, given that wood rots quickly in a tropical climate. Far-reaching political changes, the opening up of the black continent to mass tourism and the desire of the local populations to make money following the example of the West not only altered old traditions, but stimulated the production of copies of their inherited cultural models for purely commercial reasons. African art produced in the second half of the 20th century has a high probability of not being genuine. Understanding this limitation helps us to distinguish between authentic and inauthentic. For African art, the best way of determining the age of an object is by dating the wood. Today there is a scientific method serving this purpose which is accessible to anyone interested: spectroscopy. Obviously the fact that a piece of wood is old does not necessarily make it a work of art. But an object which has been dated gives an expert, a collector or a gallery owner the chance to make the most of his or her knowledge of art history and investigate the meaning of the work, setting it in its cultural context.
For further information please visit our sites
www.MuseoArteScienza.com and
www.AfricanArtAuthenticity.com
or consult Volume 3 of our Museum’s handbook (pp. 99-121) |
Ascertainment of authenticity in buddhist art.
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Buddhist art has a very strict iconography.
Every gesture and form has a symbolic meaning which leaves little room to the
creativity of the sculptor.
For these reasons it is not easy to classify
chronologically objects of Buddhist art.
One criterion for judgement is offered by the
facial expression, if it has the mystical aura that only an artist who was a
believer could give, or the loving and patient execution of details like hands
or hair. Unbelieving forgers produce lifeless figures with insignificant
features and an empty gaze.
As regards scientific tests carried out on
Asian art works in bronze, wood and stone, the same rules and techniques apply
as those used for European objects made from the same materials. It must be
borne in mind, however, that Asians – and the Chinese in particular – take a
different attitude towards copies. For them, copying the masters of the past is
considered a virtue and surpassing them an honour. An honest copy is held to be
almost on a par with the original and commands a high price on the market,
particularly if it has substituted a sacred object in a temple or a monastery.
Fakes, instead, are produced for export. Objects made to be sold can be
recognized also by their excessive beauty and rich details, as well as their
unusually great size.
Judging authenticity on the basis of aesthetic
factors is made even more difficult by the fact that venerated statues in
Buddhist temples and monasteries, if damaged, were for the most part substituted
by copies which were made to look as similar as possible to the original.
Wooden items can be dated by the spectroscopic method (www.spectroscopyforart.com)
Detailed information on our site www.MuseoArteScienza.com and in Volume 3 of our Museum’s handbook (pp. 81-97).
Ascertainment of the authenticity of carpets and tapestries
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Old Oriental
carpets were often the only elements of furnishing, their centre representing the
centre of daily life. The most worn areas are therefore in this section.
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Exhaustive information on our site www.ArtandScienceHandbook.com |
A scientific laboratory at the service of art
The Museum laboratory’s mission is to improve existing scientific methods and
elaborate new methods for the ascertainment of the authenticity of art objects.
The laboratory’s instruments and know-how for the determining of authenticity are
at the disposal of collectors, art experts, restorers, art galleries and
museums.
The laboratory of the
Museo d'Arte e Scienza is a non-profit facility
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Tests carried out by the laboratory:
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Spectroscopic dating and characterization of wooden objects |
Microscopic tests on paintings, antique bronzes, excavated pottery, etc. |
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Examination of underlying layers using infrared reflectography |
Analyses of paint layers with a duroflexometer |
Analyses with Wood’s light, UV and IR |
FURTHER ANALYSES PERFORMED IN THE LABORATORY:
Spectroscopic chemical analyses
on pigments, glues, encrustations, patinas,
products of corrosion.
Scientific, practical and instrumental tests of authenticity on:
ivory, amber, archaeological glass,
pigments, metals, stones, carpets, tapestry, prints, books, clocks and
watches, china.
PRICES: the average cost of analyses is Euro 75 per test; some tests are conclusive in telling fake and authentic items apart, such as wood dating and tests on the encrustations on pottery and bronzes. |
SCIENTIFIC METHODS
Science has made unbelievable progress in the last hundred years. The number of scientists and researchers active today in every part of the world is greater than the sum of all those who have occupied themselves with science from the origins of mankind to the present day.
The possibility of making new discoveries and perfecting existing methods has been greatly enhanced by newly invented measuring instruments and, in particular, by the computer, which permits the rapid processing of data.
The art market is increasingly gaining in economic importance and it is only natural that new knowledge is appropriated both by forgers and those who combat them.
If all art objects worthy of being imitated were subjected to scientific tests, in the same way as people undergo a check-up of their health, a very high percentage of forgeries could be eliminated in many sectors of the art market and the partly justified mistrust of the same overcome.
Described on the following
pages are scientific methods and processes
which can be applied in the wide and varied sector of antiques.
Optical methods
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The magnifying glass The forger attempts to deceive the naked human eye. But deceiving a magnifying glass in expert hands is practically impossible. A simple magnifying glass is useful for examining a patina and the surface of an object. For paintings, in particular, it serves to investigate the craquelure, the canvas, the size of pigments and other characteristics of the paint layer and the support.
The microscope The microscope permits enlargements which enable the structure of the material, like the wood surface, the paint layer with its pigments and many other materials, to be examined. Even nowadays, notwithstanding constant technical and scientific development, we can say that a magnifying glass in the hands of an experienced expert is the simplest and most valid instrument for a preliminary investigation.
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IR Spectroscopy
IR spectroscopy has been used for decades in laboratories and industry for chemical analyses. Recently it has started being applied for the dating of wood (Patent G. Matthaes) in the field of art to establish the age of furniture, painted panels, frames, statues, rafters and the like. Moreover, the spectroscopic measurement of the age of wood is not influenced by the place of origin of the tree or by the climatic conditions endured by the object over the centuries. The precision of the method presently varies from 10 to 20 years depending on the wood type and its age. A detailed description of this method is presented on the website www.SpectroscopyForArt.com and in the following pages.
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Infrared spectroscopy is
not a new method or a new discovery.
New is only its application for the ascertainment of age and
authenticity in art. It has been used for decades the world over by all
chemical and pharmaceutical companies with thousands of instruments and
with the same programme and equipment as the ones used by the laboratory
of the Museo d’Arte e Scienza. Its extreme reliability, accuracy and
facility of use have made IR Spectroscopy the number one scientific method
Spectroscopic dating is based on two well-known factors: ˇ All the natural materials on earth, including those used for creating art objects, are compounds of specific molecules. ˇ Some particular molecules undergo changes with the passage of time.
The
IR spectrum of wood shows its molecules or groups of molecules as peaks
and valleys (Figures 1, 2). Signs of age caused by evaporation,
oxidation and new combinations cause the lowering of some
absorption peaks and, to a lesser extent, a shift in the same
(Figure 3).
1 – The graphic evaluation
of the curve (Spectrography) |
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Figure 2 |
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Figure1 |
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2 – The evaluation of frequency shifts (Spectroscopy) The discovery of shifts in absorption frequencies in spectroscopic analysis has boosted accuracy over the years to an unexpected extent and was inexplicably high in the first few years. |
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Figure 4
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The application of spectroscopic analysis for the dating of organic
materials is patented |
The
radiocarbon method (carbon -14)
At its appearance, the 14C method was hailed as a prodigious tool for the absolutely certain determination of the age of antique objects and thus a valuable arm in the fight against forgers. This method permits the dating of organic material containing carbon, such as wood, fabrics, hair, ivory, coal, coral, leather, shells, forged iron, paper, etc. The method is based on the following scientific theories: In the Earth’s atmosphere natural carbon occurs in three isotopes: 12C, 13C and 14C. Only the last is radioactive and therefore unstable and its decay measurable. 14C is continuously created in the upper atmosphere through the effect of cosmic-ray bombardment and reaches the Earth with the rain. All forms of life, whether plants or animals absorb in the course of their existence, through water, also the 14C isotope which is incorporated in their bodies and therefore also in fibres of wood. At their death, this absorption ceases and the 14C is slowly transformed into 12C. The rate of decay is known to us and has been recorded in detailed tables, variously rectified and corroborated.
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Diagram 1 shows the curve of this decay period. The creation and concentration of 14C in the atmosphere has undergone considerable fluctuations over the centuries. There are uncertain periods, owing perhaps to the activity of the sun and oscillations in the magnetic field. The development of 14C in the Earth’s atmosphere has been subject to such wide variations that measurement data concerning these periods cannot be interpreted.
The uncertain periods unfortunately
coincide with two of the most important eras from an artistic point of view: the
centuries of the Greek civilization and the last 350 years of our history. |
The method is therefore not applicable for antiques created after about 1650, which unfortunately comprises the majority of those offered by the market. Summing up, we can safely affirm that the 14C method is reliable above all for the examination of archaeological samples, or in any case objects which are very old, and represents a relatively accurate and certain dating method in this field.
These tests are best
carried out in the laboratories of leading universities. They are, however,
comparatively expensive. |
Comparison between the two scientific methods which can be applied for the dating of wooden objects: IR molecular spectroscopy and radiocarbon (14C)
Their applicability is illustrated in the following table:
Supposed age of the object |
Accuracy of method |
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age in years |
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Spectroscopy |
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14C |
0-50 50-350/400 350/400-750/850 750/850-2000 more than 2000 |
quite good good good perfectible* inapplicable up to now |
good inapplicabile good good relatively high |
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* Currently only for the most commonly used woods |
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The counting of growth rings is one of the most accurate methods for the absolute dating of a piece of wood, as long as the exact place of growth of the tree it was taken from is known.
Back in school we learnt that the age of a tree can be calculated by counting the rings in its sawn trunk: each ring, consisting of a light area and a dark area, represents a year’s growth.
If an old piece of wood is found, for example in a piece of furniture, with a sufficient number of tree rings on it, it should be possible to establish his age by comparison with the table of tree-ring sequences.
Theoretically, dendrochronology is the most accurate method for dating wood. In practice, growth rings present many drawbacks.
Given that their
widths are influenced exclusively by the climate in which the tree grows and
climate varies not only between Spain and England, but also between the north,
the centre and the south of England, or between a valley or a hill, specific
tables must be elaborated for each of these areas. To begin with, therefore, it
is necessary to know fairly exactly where the tree grew.
A great limitation consists also in the fact that only a few types of trees, like for instance oaks, develop growth rings and that in order to be able to count them it is necessary to have a rather large piece of wood available.
Dendrochronology is an exact science for studying the climate of a specific region and dating wooden objects of such provenance. It is a generally accepted opinion that this method is not suitable for reliably dating a single antique object in wood.
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The thermoluminescence method
for establishing the authenticity of excavated objects
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It is possible for fakers to expose newly-made
pottery to artificial radiation sources, thus fooling the measurement
instruments. But producing fakes with the use of scientific methods calls for
expertise on the subject and expensive instruments, and in fact up to now it has
been fairly easy to identify this kind of artificial radiation. It is only a
question of time, however, until the artificial radiation method is mature for
mass production. From that moment onwards, in order to obtain reliable results,
it will be necessary to supplement thermoluminescence measurements with further
tests.
Certainty is offered by an examination of the encrustations which generally cover the ceramic surface, a method, used at the naked-eye level, as old as archaeology itself. Today it is possible to carry out this test easily using spectrography, which can distinguish with great reliability between artificially produced encrustations using cement, earth and glue from the authentic mineral salts which have formed over centuries underground.
Reflectography
Infrared Rays and IR Reflectography
Infrared radiation is characterized by the length of its waves, which penetrate deeply into matter. This phenomenon can be seen at sunset, for instance, when the very long red light waves manage to pass through the dense atmospheric haze filled with dust and smoke, whilst the light of other colours with shorter wavelengths are absorbed. In an oil painting, for instance, infrared rays can penetrate the paint layer and, if this is thin, can reach the white priming. This is the technique applied in modern IR reflectography.
This technique is very important for establishing whether a painting is an original work or a copy.
In most cases a professional painter makes a preliminary sketch of the contours of his figures in charcoal or lead pencil on the prepared canvas.
If, for example, a copyist has traced a grid to help him get the proportions of the painting right, the black lines, detected by the camera’s sensor, show up clearly on the screen.
Every painter
develops a personal style. An expert is able to recognize an artist’s hand
simply by observing a sketch or a drawing. By means of reflectography it is
possible to see the sketch that served for the future painting.
The
penetration of rays permits moreover to examine the craquelure into the depth of
the painting layer.
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Ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) light |
The human eye sees only a part of the vast colour palette of light. Physically speaking, colours are electromagnetic waves that oscillate at a given frequency. The colours received by the eye and interpreted by the human brain are limited. They lie at the centre of a vast range of electromagnetic frequencies. In the invisible region of the spectrum, which comprises the long frequencies, we find also infrared (IR) light and in the region of the short wavelengths, ultraviolet light. The invisible colours are precious elements for investigating authenticity, as copyists and forgers do not realize that the material they use can betray them thanks to the use of a light they cannot see.
Using a camera with
special films, all the specific effects produced by IR and UV lamps beyond our
field of vision can be captured and then examined in printed photos. The examination of a painting should be done with three types of light: IR, UV and Wood’s, all of which are easily carried out.
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With the help of UV
light, it is possible to detect a recent restoration
with industrial colours, through their use of synthetic binders
Visible
monochromatic light rays |
Sunlight looks white to us because our eyes are used to perceiving the sum of all the frequencies of the colours that the sun emits as white. If, instead, we light any object with rays of a single colour, it loses its beauty and details stand out which had previously escaped the notice of the observer fascinated by the spectacle of its colours. The most commonly used monochromatic light source is sodium vapour, which is pure yellow. |
Wood’s light |
Wood’s light rays
differ basically from others in that they excite certain molecules, thereby
creating fluorescence. This means that
the
material not only reflects light but gives off a light of its own.
The test with
Wood’s light does not only change the colours, but produces new shades of
colour. |
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The protective layer observed with Wood’s light |
Examining the inside of paintings with Röntgen rays |
These rays penetrate
through solids and reveal what even the finest experts cannot see. An
examination by X-radiography does not generally require specific laboratory
equipment. The X-ray machines doctors usually have in their studios are all
suitable. |
Pigmentography |
With the help of a microscope it is possible to distinguish pigments by their colour, their crystalline form, their opacity and their purity. The spectroscopic method allows us to determine with certainty the single molecules of which the pigments are composed. The peaks of the curves signal the presence of copper and oxygen (in the azurite blue pigment) and lead (in the white lead pigment).
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Further techniques
for analysing pigments are: X-ray fluorescence analysis,
scanning electron microscopes and
atom
absorption spectrometry. |
Museo
d'Arte e Scienza -
Museum of Art and Science
(18
rooms and over 2,000 items on display)
- Milan
Opening hours: Mon-Fri: 10:00-18:00 Entrance: Euro 8 - reduced Euro 4 Guided tours: (min. 10 people) Euro 10 |
via Q. Sella,4 -20121 Milan |
Sections of the "Museo d'Arte e Scienza": 6 rooms dedicated to the ascertainment of authenticity in art and antiques, 5 rooms on Leonardo da Vinci's "Treatise on Painting" and his activities in Milan, 5 rooms dedicated to African Art and Buddhist Art, 2 Scientific Laboratories
Fully aware of the many intrinsic difficulties involved,
and eager to help lovers
of antiques, G. Matthaes has been
working for over twenty years on the compilation of a reference work
capitalizing on the experience accumulated over the years in over fifty
books written by expert restorers and antique dealers in various
languages, integrated by continuous updatings and new research carried
out by its scientific laboratory.
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OTHER
SITES OF THE MUSEO D'ARTE E SCIENZA: |
www.MuseoArteScienza.com - Sections of the "Museo d'Arte e Scienza": 6 rooms dedicated to the ascertainment of authenticity in art and antiques, 5 rooms on Leonardo da Vinci's "Treatise on Painting" and his activities in Milan, 5 rooms dedicated to African Art and Buddhist Art, 2 Scientific Laboratories. www.LeonardoDaVinciMilano.com - Two permanent exhibitions: "Leonardo Citizen of Milan" and "Appreciating Art through the Eyes of Leonardo" from his "Treatise on Painting". www.AuthenticAfricanBronzesandCeramics.com - Dedicated to the authenticity of African artworks in bronze, stone and pottery. The scientific laboratory of the Museo d’Arte e Scienza has developed valid methods for telling authentic African objects from copies and fakes. www.ArtAndScienceHandbook.com - The most complete and scientifically valid guide to ascertaining the authenticity of European and non-European antiques on an objective basis (540 pages and more than 2,000 colour illustrations in 3 volumes and 3 languages). www.Paintingsauthenticity.com - Information about the authenticity of modern paintings and antique paintings. www.AntiqueFurnitureAuthenticity.com - A list of possible methods for determining the authenticity of furniture based on objective factors. www.Excavatedartauthenticity.com - "A list of all the possible ways of determining, on the basis of objective factors, the authenticity of excavated pottery, glass or bronze items from Southern Italy, the Mediterranean Basin, China and South America.". www.AfricanArtAuthenticity.com - "Art and Life in Black Africa", The African Art didactic section of the Museum (5 rooms and over 350 objects). www.SpectroscopyforArt.com - A scientific method for the dating of the wood and identification of the wood type used for art objects. Determination of their authenticity through analysis of colours, binders, pigments and other organic substances.
www.Matthaes.org
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The history of
the G. Matthaes Foundation from the opening of the painting school www.IvoryAuthenticityAndAge.com - Ivory, bone and horn can now be spectroscopically dated and accurately identified. www.LeonardoTeacherofPaintinginMilan.com - An abridged and illustrated edition of the “Treatise on Painting”.
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